Spinoza's Ethics
First Part
Concerning God
I present Spinoza’s axioms definitions and propositions and follow each with my response
DEFINITIONS:
D.I. I understand that to be CAUSE OF ITSELF (causa sui) whose essence involves existence and whose nature cannot be conceived unless existing.
'cause in itself' is that which has no explanation - in other words it is the unknown
as it is used in D.I. ‘cause of itself’ is a description of the unknown as if it is known – in other words it is a fraudulent notion
D.II. The thing is said to be FINITE IN ITS KIND (in suo genere finite) which can be limited by another thing of the same kind. E.g., a body is said to be finite because we can conceive another larger than it. Thus a thought is limited by another thought. But a body cannot be limited by a thought, nor a thought by a body.
how a thing is described will dictate what it is and what it is not
i.e., a physical description will be at odds with a non-physical description –
the thing itself is unknown – in itself it has no definite description
its description is a question of utility
description is always an open question
D.III. I understand SUBSTANCE (substantia) to be that which is in itself and is conceived through itself: I mean that, the conception of which does not depend on the conception of another thing from which it must be formed.
a substance is that which is undefined – that which is undefined is unknown
D.IV. An ATTRIBUTE (attributum) I understand to be that which the intellect perceives as constituting the essence of a substance.
an attribute is a primary description of a substance
V. By MODE (modus) I understand the Modifications (affectiones) of a substance or that which is in something else through which it may be conceived.
a modification or mode is a secondary description
VI. GOD (Deus) I understand to be a being absolutely infinite, that is a substance consisting of infinite attributes, each of which expresses eternal and infinite essence.
I say absolutely infinite, but not in its kind. For whatever is infinite only in its kind, we may deny the attributes to be infinite; but to the essence of what is absolutely infinite there appertains no negation.
‘God’ is a name for the unknown –
(any proper name is a ‘description place’ – that is an identification of the logical place for description – a proper name has no meaning – except as a mark for description – its status is syntactical)
VII. The thing is said to be FREE (libera) which exists by the mere necessity of its own nature and is determined in its actions by itself alone. That thing is said to be NECESSARY (necessaria), or rather COMPELLED (coacta), when it is determined in its existence and actions by something else in a certain fixed ratio.
to describe a thing as free or compelled is to characterize it – and to characterize it in relation to other things
the utility of these characterizations is determined by the uses the are put to
either characterization fits within a broader descriptive framework or world view
there is no essential world view – there are only options
a free conception and a compelled conception are two such perspectives
in itself the world is unknown
VI. I understand ETERNITY (aeternitas) to be existence itself, in so far as it is conceived to follow necessarily from the definition of an eternal thing.
Explanation. – For such existence is conceived as an eternal truth, just as is the essence of a thing, and therefore cannot be explained by duration or time, although duration can be conceived as wanting beginning and end.
time is the space between events – which is to say it is the making of a measurement of the relation of events
eternity is the absence of the measurement of events
it has no use
AXIOMS
A.I. All things which are, and are in themselves or in other things.
a thing can be described independently or in relation to other things
A.II. That which cannot be conceived through another thing must be conceived through itself.
a thing may be conceived in relation to another thing or independently of other things
A.III. From a given determined cause an effect follows of necessity, and on the other hand, if no determined cause is granted, it is impossible that an effect should follow.
the relation of things can be described in terms of cause and effect
IV. The knowledge of an effect depends on the knowledge of a cause, and involves the same.
our knowledge of cause and effect is based on the decision to relate things in such a manner
V. Things which have nothing in common reciprocally cannot be comprehended reciprocally through each other, or, the conception of one does not involve the conception of another.
things can be related in terms of each other or they can be known or described independently of other things
VI. A true idea should agree with its ideal (ideatum) i.e., what it conceives.
an idea of a thing makes that thing known –
truth is a question of function – does the idea enable action in relation to the thing in question?
VI. The essence of that which can be conceived as not existing does not involve existence.
a thing exists in terms of its description
PROPOSITIONS
P.I. A substance is prior in it nature to its modifications.
a substance is its modifications – that is its descriptions –
apart from its descriptions it is unknown
P.II. Two substances, having different attributes, have nothing in common between them.
two substances having different attributes – that is different primary descriptions have in common that they are (apart from their attributes) unknown
P.III. Of two things having nothing in common between them, one cannot be the cause of the other.
the cause or reason for anything is unknown –
any causal proposal is a conjecture –
the validity of any such explanation depends on the broader theoretical descriptions in which it is embedded
how things are and how they related to each other is a matter of description –
description is the ground for action
what action or end is being contemplated determines description
P.IV. Two or three distinct things are distinguished one from the other by the difference of the attributes of the substances or by the difference of their modifications.
things are distinguished by their definitions – by their descriptions
P.V. In the nature of things, two or more substances may not be granted having the same nature or attribute.
we do not apply the same description to two things in principle because to do so renders the act of description useless
in practise the question of meaning is the question of deciding how and when a description does or does not apply
P.VI. One substance cannot be produced by another.
how things are described determines their relation
a substance outside of definition is an unknown –
how a substance is defined will determine its relation with other substances –
the production of substances is a theory of how nature works –
for any such theory to function substances must be defined and defined in relation to each other
anything can be related to anything else – the issue is to find the appropriate description –
such is the task of science
P.VII. Existence appertains to the nature of substance.
if a thing exists it exists
the real question is what descriptions apply to it –
and this is a question of how something is to be understood –
the question is not if x exists – it is rather how x is described – which is to say how x exists
ultimately there is no unique existential description
P.VIII. All substance is necessarily infinite.
the unknown is not necessary or infinite – it is – unknown
substance is made known in description
to describe x as infinite is to describe it as being without limits
this is a false description
for x to be – x must be distinguished from ~x
that is x must be described as what it is - as distinct from what it is not
any description is the drawing of limits
there is no infinite description
P.IX. The more reality or being a thing has, the more attributes it will have.
a thing may be described variously –
the more descriptions that can be applied to a thing – the more utility it has
P.X. Each attribute of the one substance must be conceived through itself.
there is no definite description of any thing –
any description is based on a prior description –
so no attribute (description) can be conceived through itself (be based on itself)
P.XI. God or a substance consisting of infinite attributes, each of which expresses eternal and infinite essence, necessarily exists.
God or a substance consisting of infinite attributes each of which expresses eternal an infinite essence is a thing without definition –
the act of definition is an act of distinction –
that is the point of the act is to distinguish x from ~x
that which cannot be defined cannot be described –
that which cannot be described cannot exist
our knowledge of what exists just is our descriptions of the world –
beyond description the world is unknown
P.XII. No attribute of a substance can be truly conceived, from which it would follow that substance can be divided into parts.
an attribute is a definition or description of a substance –
the substance itself is unknown outside its definition –
definition is a question of utility –
a substance may be described as having parts – if this description is deemed useful
P.XIII. Substance absolutely infinite is indivisible.
substance absolutely infinite – is indefinable
that is to say if x cannot be distinguished from ~x – then x itself cannot be determined
definition requires negation – that which cannot be distinguished in terms of its negation cannot be defined
to define substance as absolutely infinite is to deny the logic of definition
P.XIV. Except God no substance can be granted or conceived.
a substance is that which prior to description is unknown –
the unknown is described variously –
‘God’ is one among many possible descriptions of the unknown
‘God’ as a proper name is a logical place for description – it is an identification mark
P.XV. Whatever is, is in God, and nothing can exist or be conceived without God.
the unknown is the ground of all description
P.XVI. Infinite things in infinite modes (that is, all things which can fall under the heading of infinite intellect) must necessarily follow from the necessity of divine nature.
the unknown is the object of consciousness –
it is only determined by description –
the unknown is the ground of possible description –
the only necessity is the necessity to act –
description is the basis of action
P.XVII. God acts merely according to his own laws, and is compelled by no one.
the ground of description is the unknown –
different pursuits require different forms of description
there is no universal description
the question of the logic of description is always an open question
it is itself a matter for description
P.XVIII. God is the indwelling and not the transient cause of things.
'God' is a name for the unknown
in asking ‘what is the cause of things?’ –
we can say we do not know in any final sense
but this is not to say the unknown is the cause of things –
and this is what Spinoza’s view comes to
any theory of the cause of things is a response to the unknown
it is an attempt to provide a theoretical platform that will enables us to act rationally in the world
P.XIX. God and all the attributes of God are eternal.
all descriptions (attributes) have value – all value is a question of utility – utility is a question of contingency – that is time place - need
P.XX. God’s existence and his essence are one and the same thing.
the unknown’s existence and its essence are one and the same thing - unknown
PXXI. All things which follow from the absolute nature of any attribute of God must exist forever and infinitely, or must exist eternally and infinitely through that same attribute.
any description of the unknown has value only in terms of its utility
PXXII. Whatever follows from an attribute of God, in so far as it is modified by such a modification as exists of necessity and infinitely through the same, must also exist of necessity and infinitely.
whatever follows from a description has value in terms of its utility
any description of the unknown is an attempt to determinate it
the determination will be successful or not depending on the task it is put to - and the criterion for success that is adopted
P.XXIII. Every mode which of necessity and infinitely exists must of necessity have followed from either the absolute nature of some attribute of God, or from some attribute modified by a modification which exists of necessity and infinitely.
any description is a description of the unknown or a description of a description of the unknown –
the existence of any description is a question of its utility –
there is no necessity in utility – utility is uncertain
P.XXIV. The essence of things produced by God does not involve existence.
the essence of things is the unknown – the unknown is the ground for existential statements
PXXV. God is not only the effecting cause of the existence of things, but also of their essence.
the unknown is the ground of any explanation – the cause of things is unknown – as is their essence
P.XXVI. A thing which is determined for the performing of anything was so determined necessarily by God, and a thing which is not determined by God cannot determine of itself to do anything.
action is the immediate ground of description –
an action is determined or not in description –
outside of description any action is unknown
P.XXVII. A thing which is determined by God for the performing of anything cannot render itself undetermined.
God or the unknown is undetermined –
a determination is a description –
a description is the ground for action –
there is no definite description –
the unknown is only ever provisionally determined
P.XXVIII. Every individual thing, or whatever thing that is finite and has a determined existence, cannot exist or be determined for action unless it is determined for action and existence by another cause which is also finite and has a determined existence; and again, this cause also cannot exist nor be determined for action unless it be determined for existence and action by another cause which also is finite and has a determined existence: and so on to infinity.
a thing is determined by description –
natural determination – or veridical perception is a function of the relation of consciousness to it object –
to describe a thing as finite is to assert it is definable –
to speak of the cause of any thing is to offer an existential explanation of it –
determinism is a form of description which is consistent with the idea that all things are determined –
such a view has itsuses
P.XXIX. In the nature of things nothing contingent (contingens) is granted, but all things are determined by the necessity of divine nature for existing and working in a certain way.
the unknown is neither necessary or contingent – it is unknown –
any determination of the unknown – that is any description of it is uncertain
so called ‘necessary’ descriptions may prove useful depending on the task to be performed
necessity is a decision to stop inquiry – to establish a foundation
its value is pragmatic
contingency is the way of things
P.XXX. Intellect, finite or infinite in actuality (actus), must comprehend the attributes of God and the modifications of God and nothing else.
the object of knowledge is the unknown – the intellect determines the unknown for action
P.XXXI. The intellect in actuality, whether it be finite or infinite, as also will, desire, love, etc., must be referred not to active but passive nature.
the intellect or the action of consciousness refers to that outside itself –
the unknown can be characterized as active or passive or uncertain or in any number of ways –
the object of consciousness does not dictate its characterization or description
P.XXXII. Will can only be called a necessary cause, not a free one.
will is a conscious determination of the body –
an action can be described as free or not free
P.XXXIII. Things could not have been produced by God in any other manner or order than that in which they were produced.
the origin of things is unknown –
we make speculative theories in response to any such question –
the question itself is open to question i.e. perhaps there is no origin
P.XXXIV. The power of God is the same as his essence.
the essence of reality is that it is unknown –
any action in response to this reality is an act of power –
that is in the face of the unknown –
any action is powerful -
action is power
P.XXV. Whatever we conceive to be in the power of God necessarily exists.
the unknown is powerless
P.XXXVI. Nothing exists from whose nature some effect does not follow.
we can conceive the world in terms of cause and effect – such an idea is natural to human consciousness – and as such is useful
© greg. t. charlton. 2009.
